The history of perfume is as ancient as human civilization itself, so ancient that no one can determine its exact origins. The obscured history has become increasingly difficult to trace as time passes, and scholars can only speculate about the mysterious origin of perfume based on fragmented historical fragments. According to records, perfume was initially used for worshiping deities, representing something sacred and inviolable, thus forbidden for ordinary people to use. During the Stone Age, humans learned how to use fire and believed that the smoke emanating from burning objects was a connection between the gods and the earth. The English word “Perfume” originates from the Latin word “Per fumum,” meaning “through smoke.” Even now, incense plays a significant role in many religions, such as Buddhism and Taoism in our country. Ancient emperors would burn incense lavishly during rituals, believing that the rising smoke would facilitate communication with the divine.

The Perfume History of Ancient Egypt:

Ancient Egyptians were the first to use perfume for personal enjoyment. Initially, only priests were allowed to use perfume, and they were the only ones involved in the perfume-making process. That is why many temples had special perfume laboratories. Later on, Egyptian kings and queens also began to indulge in perfumes. When they passed away, their bodies would be mummified, and they would be wrapped in fragrant spices, such as myrrh and cinnamon. For a long time after that, only prominent individuals had the privilege of adorning their tombs with perfume when they died. In 1992, when archaeologists opened the pyramid tomb of the Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamun, they discovered his mummy and several oil jars containing perfumed oils in the vicinity.

In 40 BC, during the reign of Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt, the use of perfume reached an unprecedented climax. As her reign began to crumble, she relied on her beauty and employed copious amounts of perfume to seduce the Roman Emperor Julius Caesar, gaining their military support. After her death, Egypt’s fervent adoration for perfume temporarily waned.

The Perfume History of Ancient Greece:

Perfume was introduced to Greece through the Phoenicians. Greece gained control over Mediterranean trade after Egypt lost its ruling power. During that time, Greece had a significant number of female perfumers who improved upon Egypt’s perfume-making techniques. The ancient Greeks consumed large quantities of perfume annually and had a habit of using different perfumes on different parts of their bodies. Solon, a prominent Athenian statesman and lawmaker, believed that perfume usage was excessive among the citizens and attempted to legislate against the free sale of perfumes. However, his efforts were unsuccessful, as perfume remained an immensely popular product. Due to the Greeks’ fondness for jasmine, it was designated as Greece’s national flower.

The Perfume History of Ancient Rome:

Influenced by the Eastern and Greek regions, the Romans too became enamored with perfume. Initially, the Roman Empire only permitted perfume usage during religious activities and funerals of distinguished individuals. However, during the reign of Emperor Nero, perfume usage reached a fanatical stage. When Nero’s most beloved pontiff passed away, the amount of incense he used exceeded the annual supply from Arabia. The Romans excelled in the craft of creating perfumes and had no restraints in their usage. They would spray perfumes on the floor, walls, and even on their horses and dogs. In some high-society banquets, perfume fountains were even observed.

The Ancient History of Arabian Perfume:

The rise of Christianity greatly suppressed the use of perfume. Not only was its daily use significantly reduced, but it also affected traditional religious customs. Christianity considered perfume to be a product with no practical purpose. However, the Arabs maintained the habit of using perfume. The followers of Islam's founder, Mohammed, cherished the scents of musk, rose, and amber. They would even mix these fragrances with the cement used to build lavish palaces, creating a strong and lasting aroma in the palaces.

One of the most significant inventions in the history of perfumes originated in the 10th century, with the invention of the still, which greatly improved the perfume-making process through distillation. Consequently, vast areas within Persia were dedicated to growing roses, which were then traded and transported to Baghdad in Arabia for the extraction of rose oil. Baghdad became known as the "City of Perfumes." In the 12th century, Arabs discovered that dissolving perfume essences in alcohol allowed for a slow release of the fragrance and better preservation of the concentrated essence.

11th to 16th century:

 Gloves and the Black Death: The downfall of the Roman Empire, invasions by barbarian tribes, and endless wars plunged European countries into a dark historical period, during which perfume lost its previous status. It wasn't until the revival of trade in the 12th century that this situation began to change. The rise of universities, advancements in alchemy, and the knowledge of distillation passed down by Arabs significantly improved the process of perfume-making.

Incense and myrrh remained the most commonly used spices in religious activities, where people would use small brushes to apply perfume to clothing or spray it on walls during certain religious ceremonies.

he Origins of Leather Gloves:

In 1268, the leather glove industry in Grasse, France, experienced rapid development and began exporting finished products to other countries. However, due to the use of nitrogen-containing industrial waste in the leather manufacturing process, the finished gloves had an unpleasant odor. To combat this, lavender, rosemary, sage, and other aromatic plant essential oils were added for deodorization. In addition to traditional distillation methods, the people of Grasse also invented the technique of enfleurage for extracting essential oils. This innovation of adding fragrance to leather gloves had significant implications for the development of Grasse and the entire French perfume industry.

Venice, Italy, was the largest perfume trading city in the world at that time, with a vast spice market where spices from the Far East were traded daily. Marco Polo’s travels introduced pepper, nutmeg, and clove oil to Italy. Arab sailors brought various spices from the East Indies and Ceylon, and Asian merchants even imported spices from Malaysia and China. An Italian official discovered the favorable natural environment for growing spices in Grasse and the local methods of essential oil extraction. He was sent to Grasse and tasked with providing spices for the Italian court.

The Black Death and Perfume:

 The Black Death outbreak began in 1348, lasting approximately 400 years before gradually disappearing after 1679. It was a terrifying and dark period for Europeans, with about one-third of the population dying from the plague. As doctors at the time believed that the Black Death was airborne, they advised people to wear thick clothing as the first line of defense against air contact. The second line of defense was refraining from bathing, as the belief was that the dirt on the body would clog the pores. This misinformation lasted until the 19th century, during which Europeans avoided bathing for 500 years. King Louis XVI of France reportedly only bathed twice a year. In the 18th century travel guides, it was noted that half the population of Paris had never taken a bath, resulting in serious body odor issues. People noticed that perfume makers seemed to be immune to the ravages of the Black Death. In the 17th century, there was a town in England called Borklesbury, which was a center for trading lavender. As the plague was spread by fleas, and lavender had natural insect-repelling properties, not a single person in the town contracted the Black Death.

The novel spice container, called the “scent box,” was born in that era to preserve musk, amber, resin, lavender, and other essential oils. The spherical container was covered in small holes to release the fragrance. The aromas were believed to ward off the Black Death and other epidemics. These scent boxes laid the foundation for modern aromatherapy, with benefits including digestion promotion and enhancement of libido. Perfumes at the time served not only for aromatherapy but also to mask unpleasant odors, such as body odor resulting from lack of bathing and the foul stench emanating from urban environments. The engineering skills of the ancient Romans had provided Europe’s cities with advanced drainage systems, but with the decline of the Roman civilization, the sanitary conditions in European cities rapidly deteriorated, remaining primitive until the 19th century. Throughout the long years, European cities were incredibly filthy. Paris, with its dense population, exemplified this. Its residents treated the streets and squares as dumping grounds, waiting for rainwater to wash the filth into the rivers. Inhabitants of buildings would simply pour sewage and garbage out of their windows, and the streets were often filled with flowing sewage and vile stench. All of this earned Paris the title of the “City of Smells.” Under these assaults of internal and external odors, French nobles and the upper class began using perfumes extensively, leading to a stable growth in related products such as fragrance sachets and powders. (To be continued)