"This sentence is a continuation of the previous article, 'The Scroll of Perfume: A Millennium of Transformation in the Perfume Industry (Section 1).' Link: http://oggne-aroma.com/news_show.aspx?id=443."

The Birth of New Perfumes:

 

In the second half of the 14th century, a new type of perfume was born, created by blending alcohol and essential oils, which was then known as "toilet water." This is why the term "perfume" includes the word "water." Here's a story about the perfume of Queen Elizabeth of Hungary. According to a folk tale, Queen Elizabeth of Hungary was already 70 years old and in poor health. A monk gave her a bottle of perfume, and after using it, all her ailments were healed, and she regained her youthfulness. The King of Poland even proposed marriage to her.

 

With the discovery of the New World in the 15th century, Venice lost its original position, and the volume of spice trade increased for Spain and Portugal. During this period, the Netherlands became the country with the most rapid development in the perfume industry. They engaged in international trade, protected their domestic spice industry, and improved cultivation techniques. This led to a significant increase in the production of perfumes (toilet water) in the Netherlands, and they moved away from the previously single scent characteristic and started using a large variety of blended spices, including flowers, herbs, musk, and amber.

 

Industrialization of Perfumes:

 

The industrialization of perfumes began in the 16th century. It was during this time that Italian princess Catherine de' Medici came to Paris from Italy, married King Henry II of France, and became the Queen of France. She brought the trends of Italian perfumes and fashion to France, and her personal perfumer, Rene le Florentin, also came to France and opened a perfume shop in Paris. Perfumed gloves became a fashionable accessory among the elite and nobles in Paris. Everyone started favoring gloves soaked in perfume. The best perfume gloves came from Grasse, a city in France that prospered due to the trade in perfumed gloves. Its unique natural environment was perfect for cultivating various spices, making it a significant spice-growing base. Today, renowned perfume brands like Chanel and Guerlain have their exclusive plantations in Grasse to cultivate precious aromatic plants.

 

During the 17th century, the perfume industry saw tremendous success, and people became obsessed with perfumes to the extent that body odor problems were no longer a concern. The glove industry flourished under the leadership of Louis XIII, and many glove guilds were formed, collaborating with perfume manufacturers. Louis XIV gathered a group of apothecaries, distillers, alchemists, and chemists to monopolize the perfume industry. Jasmine, rose, and various bulbous plants were used as spices and expanded the range of perfume materials, enriching the fragrance of perfumes. A wide variety of perfume bottles also emerged.

 

The use of perfume boxes became widespread, and this practice continued until the late 18th century. Many pear-shaped transparent glass bottles and crystal bottles also came into use. During the Baroque period, a group of quirky perfume bottle collectors emerged.

 

17th Century - 18th Century: Eau de Cologne and the Rise of Grasse:

 

During the French Revolution, philosophers and perfumes dominated the world. Louis XV's palace was even nicknamed "the perfumed court" because perfume was sprayed daily on fans, furniture, and clothing. Even though vinegar was more effective for disinfection, people still relied on the insect-repellent function of perfumes in preventing and treating the plague. One of the magical perfumes that emerged during that time was the "vinegar of the four thieves" (vinaigre des quatre voleurs). The recipe for this vinegar originated from England and was initially created by four thieves to protect their families from being infected by the plague. Later, the formula became strictly guarded, known only to a few witches. Thanks to the protection of this vinegar, the four thieves were able to steal from the dead without getting infected. When they were finally caught, they exchanged the formula for their freedom. The recipe was then revealed to the public the next day, possibly contributing to its success in repelling insects.

 

The Use of Fans: From the 17th century until the rise of spray bottles in the second half of the 19th century, fans (éventails) were frequently used to spray perfume. The material of the fan's blades was well-suited for absorbing perfume, allowing the fragrance to remain on the fan for a considerable amount of time. Moreover, the process of using the fan also facilitated the diffusion of the fragrance. Eventually, with the advent of perfume sprayers, fans were no longer used for dispersing scents. However, they continued to be used as display tools in perfume shops, similar to modern fragrance testers at the counters.

 

The Rise of Eau de Cologne:

 

The true revolution of perfumes began in the 18th century when the process of global perfumery was accelerated with the invention of Eau de Cologne. This refreshing fragrance, composed of natural spices and alcohol without any harmful substances, had versatile uses. Besides being a regular perfume, it was used for bathing, mouthwash, mixed with red wine or sugar for consumption, or used for simple disinfection.

 

The origin of Eau de Cologne is a highly controversial topic that could fill an entire book. One interesting story involves the rivalry between the families of Feminis and Farina. Emily Farina of the Farina family invented a new type of perfume, which was initially supposed to be named "Eau de Bologne." The most widely accepted version of the story dates back to the 14th century and revolves around a nun in a Florentine convent in Italy. This nun developed a perfume called "Acqua de Regina" (Queen's Water). This perfume gained fame in the 17th century, so much so that a member of the Feminis family, Giovanni Paolo Giovanetti, attempted to seduce the abbess of the convent to acquire the formula for the perfume. Giovanetti was a pharmacist from Cologne, and once he obtained the formula, he wanted to start the perfume business immediately. This perfume was initially renamed "Eau Admirable," but later became known as "Eau de Cologne" as we know it today. In 1766, the Feminis family invited their cousins from Italy to expand the perfume business together. In 1806, Jean Marie Farina of the Farina family even disguised himself as a perfumer in Paris and had great talent in perfumery, making significant sales. Later, he sold the trademark of Eau de Cologne to a company formed by Armand Roger and Charles Gallet, known as Roger & Gallet, which still produces high-quality perfumes and fragrant soaps today. In 1865, there were 39 perfume boutiques with the Eau de Cologne logo in Cologne alone.

 

Napoleon was one of the biggest consumers of Eau de Cologne, using it for bathing or mixing it with sugar for consumption. It is said that he used 5 kilograms of Eau de Cologne every day.

 

Another version of the story of Eau de Cologne dates back to 1792 in Cologne, where a monk presented the formula for a perfume called "l’acqua marabilis" (the miraculous water) to the son of a banker named Wilhelm Mülhens at his wedding in the form of a parchment scroll. After the wedding, the couple started selling this perfume, naming it "4711 Eau de Cologne." Two centuries later, 4711 Eau de Cologne is still being sold, and it has

been continuously managed by the descendants of the Mülhens family, under Ferdinand Mülhens's charge.

 

The New Facet of Perfume Bottles:

 

Since the early 18th century, different types of perfumes have been paired with various bottle designs. In France, glass bottles were very popular in the perfume industry, thanks to the Baccarat factory's dedication to producing a variety of glass perfume bottles. The glass industry in Saint Louis also played a significant role in the development of perfume bottles, and crystal glass has remained popular to this day. Some high-end perfume bottles were crafted with gold and silver and adorned with crystals and jade. The bottle designs of that time moved away from the previous Baroque style, embracing a return to nature, simplicity, and elegance, earning praise from figures like Rousseau.

 

During this period, a batch of excellent porcelain perfume bottles emerged, often decorated with gold and crafted into pear shapes. Porcelain was typically traded by Germans, Austrians, and Britons. The Wedgwood company invented blue and white porcelain, introducing this type of ceramic perfume bottle to Europe for the first time.

 

Looking at the patterns on porcelain perfume bottles, one would find mostly floral, fruity, war-related, and some oriental illustrations, reflecting people's fondness for Rococo style at that time. Even figurative perfume bottles appeared, primarily depicting comedic art. In the 18th century, the use of toilet bags became popular, with small bottles inside for holding different perfumes. These bags had versatile uses and could also carry toothbrushes, pencils, cotton swabs, or funnels.

 

The Perfume City - Grasse:

 

The preference of perfumers for Grasse, France, made it quickly become the world's largest spice production base, particularly for jasmine, rose, and various citrus plants. Due to the presence of leather factories and perfumed glove merchants, Grasse indirectly became an essential chapter in perfume history. In 1724, perfume makers in Grasse began using stills to create perfumes, establishing a permanent connection between the city and the perfume industry. By the mid-18th century, Grasse had become the world's first and largest spice cultivation and essential oil extraction base. Galimard was the largest producer of perfumes and aromatic products in Grasse, supplying perfumes, resins, olive oil, and other aromatic products to King Louis XIV and Louis XV. Other local perfume manufacturers also matured over time, leading to more mass production to meet the growing market demand. Paris maintained close trade relations with Grasse, making it the world's number one Perfume City. However, in 1760, the government imposed high taxes on leather, significantly reducing the profitability of the leather industry and leading to its decline in Grasse. The leather industry in Montpellier, in southern France, was larger and financially stronger and also suffered a similar fate. This alliance between leather and perfume was broken, but the perfume industry in Grasse remained strong and stable, focusing on the development of spice cultivation. Through centuries of accumulation, Grasse became a global leader in spice cultivation, essential oil extraction, and perfumery techniques, and has retained the title of Perfume City to this day. The art of perfumery has been passed down through generations, cultivating numerous outstanding perfumers. Many renowned perfumers worldwide have their origins in Grasse. During the Romantic period (late 18th century), salty fragrances became mainstream, matching the prevailing melancholic mood of that era. Napoleon III corrected this trend by introducing the use of lavender, and later, the practice of adding small amounts of lavender to perfumes was retained. In the 19th century, the development of modern chemical industry led to a change in people's olfactory preferences, which caused a significant transformation in the perfume industry. This trend has persisted to this day. The French Revolution did not diminish people's pursuit of perfume; there was even a perfume called "Parfum à la Guillotine" during that period. During the period of the French Directory (1795-1799), people began daring to showcase luxury items, including the use of precious perfumes. During Napoleon's reign, he encouraged the use of perfume, and both Napoleon and his ministers were major consumers of perfumes. Empress Josephine, in particular, adored intensely scented perfumes and was nicknamed the "Muskfool." Her bathroom was filled daily with strong scents of musk, vanilla, and amber, to the extent that the fragrance lingered even 70 years later. She had two beloved perfumers, Lubin and Houbigant, and poured countless amounts of money into their creations. However, her husband, Napoleon, sometimes found the strong scents overwhelming and had to leave the bedroom to sleep in another room. He himself was an avid user of Eau de Cologne, and his servants would apply Jean Marie Farina's Eau de Cologne to him daily. A perfumer specially designed a small perfume bottle for Napoleon, which could be placed inside his boots, and he would consume 60 bottles every month. According to him, perfumes not only stimulated his brain but also affected his relationship with the Empress. This can be observed in their preserved correspondence - "Darling, don't bathe; I'll be back soon, about eight days or so." During the French Restoration period (1815-1830), the perfume industry experienced a relatively slow development phase. People tended to use softer, powdery scented perfumes. During King Louis XVIII's reign, the popularity of perfumes such as "Les Larmes de l'Aurore" and "De l'Eau des Belles" reflected this trend.

 

The Rise of the Guerlain Empire:

 

In the history of perfumes, one individual created a perfume empire, and that person was Pierre-François Pascal Guerlain. He was a physician and chemist who opened his first Guerlain perfume boutique in Paris in 1828, selling perfumes and scented powders. His fame skyrocketed thanks to his creation of "Au de Cologne Impériale" (Imperial Cologne) and was bestowed the title of "Royal Supplier" by Queen Eugénie. His two sons, Aimé and Gabriel, inherited his business. In 1889, Aimé Guerlain realized that different fragrance notes evaporate at different rates during the volatilization process, resulting in different scents at different time intervals. This led to his new concept of perfume structure and the introduction of the world-renowned perfume "Jicky," which became the first perfume with three distinct fragrance notes in history. From then on, mass production of perfumes adopted this pyramid (or three-tier) structure. This three-tier structure consists of the top, middle, and base notes, each representing different phases of the fragrance.

 

The Revolution of Synthetic Fragrances:

 

The most significant contribution to the perfume industry in the 19th century came from organic chemistry. Organic chemistry allowed researchers to separate odors into individual molecules and imitate them through artificial synthesis. Perfumers were no longer constrained by nature and could use their imagination to create captivating new scents. Industrialization also impacted the design of perfume bottles. Glass remained the preferred material, with Bohemia, France, and England having high-end bottle-making techniques. However, all these contributions pale in comparison to the impact of one thing on perfume history—the still, and we should all thank its inventor as perfume enthusiasts. In 1874, the first artificial synthetic fragrance, vanillin, was created, which possessed a vanilla scent with a rich milky flavor, a

 

 long-lasting fragrance, and the ability to enhance and stabilize other scents in perfumes. This significantly accelerated the industrialization of the perfume industry, enabling large-scale mass production of perfumes. While reducing the cost of perfume production, it also allowed the general public to afford and enjoy using perfumes. Due to its affordability, artificial fragrance had a certain impact on the cultivation of traditional natural fragrances. With advancing technology, more and more natural fragrances were discovered to be replaced by cheaper artificial alternatives, which is one of the reasons why perfumes are continually reformulated. It can be said that modern perfumes are cost-effective compared to the past, while their selling price remains the same, resulting in higher profits per bottle.

 

Perfume Classification System:

 

In the late 19th century, a famous British perfumer, Eugene Rimmel, attempted to classify various perfumes into 18 categories (e.g., the Sandalwood category included sandalwood, vetiver, and cedarwood). Classifying different fragrances accurately proved to be challenging as precisely describing a scent is not easy. Therefore, this classification system was not widely adopted. Around the same time, another perfumer, Charles Piesse, tried to categorize perfumes using a corresponding musical scale. He believed that perfumes should be arranged with their own order, just like musical notes. While this method didn't gain widespread recognition, some terms related to music are still used in perfumery today, such as "Accord," which means "harmony" in music.

 

The 20th Century: The Integration of Perfume and the Fashion Industry:

 

In late 19th-century France, nearly 2,000 people were involved in the perfume industry, and one-third of perfume production was exported for sale. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, the middle class suddenly became wealthy, and they discovered that perfumes, originally exclusive to the nobility, could also be mass-produced through industrialization. As people gained more expertise in synthetic technologies, perfumers needed to acquire more chemical knowledge.

 

The New Trend of Marketing:

 

The 1900 Paris World's Fair became a significant event in the history of perfumes. The perfume pavilions at the fair were gorgeously decorated, with a large fountain in the center, surrounded by various perfume exhibitors. The exhibitors invited famous artists of the time to design their booths' decoration. One such renowned designer, Hector Guimard, designed perfume bottles for perfumer Mailot. Gradually, people began to value elements beyond perfume scent, such as bottle design, packaging, and advertising. Perfume companies started collaborating with renowned glass manufacturers like Lalique and Baccarat, as well as other famous designers and advertisers. The successful collaboration between François Coty and René Lalique was particularly notable, and the two became the founders of Coty Perfumes and Lalique Crystal Products, respectively. They carefully designed different perfume bottles for each perfume, making the bottles themselves a selling point. Before this, perfume stores used to pour purchased perfumes into identically shaped glass bottles. Established in 1904, Coty Company became globally renowned for revolutionizing modern perfumery, being a major advocate for artificial synthetic fragrances, and producing and selling a large number of affordable perfumes. It is now the world's largest perfume manufacturer and leader in the perfume industry. Coty owns numerous perfume brands, including Calvin Klein, Davidoff, and Vera Wang, among others, which we are familiar with. Lalique Crystal Company continuously improved the production process of perfume bottles. Apart from Coty, they also collaborated with Guerlain and many other perfume companies to create custom-designed perfume bottles. Other perfume bottle companies also contributed to the evolution of bottle-making techniques, such as Baccarat, the bottle manufacturer for Guerlain, which maintained its strict production processes and successfully continued its business into the 20th century. Only Baccarat could meet Chanel's stringent requirements and design and produce the iconic bottle for Chanel No. 5.

 

Combining Perfume and Fashion Industry:

 

In 1911, a fashion designer named Paul Poiret liberated women from tight corsets, gaining fame in the process. He was the first person to link perfume with fashion and named his first perfume under the fashion brand after his eldest daughter - "Les Parfums de Rosine," but due to marketing challenges, this perfume didn't sell well. In contrast, "Chanel No. 5," created by Gabrielle Chanel, became hugely successful and remains popular to this day. The perfumer behind Chanel No. 5 was Ernest Beaux, who introduced aldehydes into perfumery. These aldehyde-like chemicals often play a major role in perfumes, intensifying the fragrance and improving compatibility among ingredients, leading to longer-lasting scents. They are often present in solid form as fixatives. While various high-tech components have been introduced over time, aldehydes remain a notable element, extracted from alcohol or natural plants. Aldehydes serve multiple purposes, such as mimicking the scent of hawthorn or violet, providing distinctiveness to perfumes. However, they require careful handling and precise dosing, as even a small accidental spill of the raw liquid on the skin can create an unpleasant odor.

 

The Birth of Chypre:

 

During this period, there were significant advancements in perfume manufacturing techniques. Francois Coty was the first to blend natural and synthetic fragrances, and his perfume "L'Origan by Coty" in 1905 became the first modern perfume known worldwide. In 1917, he created "Chypre," which gained fame for its unique and novel fragrance, introducing a new member to the family of fragrance categories known as "Chypre" perfumes. Chypre fragrances typically contain oakmoss, lavender, labdanum, bergamot, and some spices with oriental characteristics, resulting in a diffusive, soft, spicy, and sensual aroma. Chypre fragrances, due to their distinct mossy notes, are also known domestically as "mossy" fragrances. Towards the end of the 19th century, the popularity of fragrances like Chypre, which used synthetic fragrances, sparked an era known as the synthetic fragrance revolution.

 

The Era of Myriad Creations:

 

The 1920s was a golden period for perfumes. Apart from Chanel No. 5, classic and iconic perfumes like "Shalimar" and "Mitsouko" by Guerlain and "Arpege" by Lanvin gained immense popularity. After World War I, women's social status improved significantly, and they became bolder in expressing themselves, using perfumes as powerful weapons to attract the opposite sex. Perfumes of that era tended to have rich floral scents, exuding a romantic atmosphere. In the 1930s, black-and-white films emerged, and the world experienced the Great Depression. People sought escapism in cinemas, dreaming of better days. Women desired an escape through perfumes, and "Joy" by Jean Patou was a reflection of their longing for joy during the economic downturn. Joy, made from over 100 precious floral ingredients, diffused the tense atmosphere of the era. The founder of Givenchy created "L'Interdit" as a perfume for his girlfriend, the renowned actress Audrey Hepburn, reflecting a call for excitement and adventure. During this decade, leather-based fragrances became popular, characterized by the scent of leather and powdery notes, such as "Chanel Cuir de Russie."

 

Post-World War II, people finally embraced joy and reunions with family, restoring their proper grace and demeanor. Perfumes of this era were full of femininity, and perfume bottle designs showcased feminine lines. Nina Ricci's "L'Air du Temps," introduced in 1948, with its iconic bottle featuring two doves, symbolized the jubilant spirits welcoming peace, becoming a witness to love's beauty.

 

A Renaissance of Perfumery:

 

The 1950s marked the pinnacle of France's fragrance industry. After Chanel successfully linked fashion with perfume, other fashion giants like Jean Patou, Worth, and Lanvin followed suit. As society stabilized, women had to juggle careers and family, and perfumes became treasured gifts from lovers and husbands. Estée Lauder's "Youth-Dew," launched with a lower price but higher fragrance concentration, gained immense popularity. In 1955, Christian Dior introduced "Diorissimo," the first perfume centered around lily-of-the-valley, catering to the innocent girl's taste. In 1957, Givenchy created "L'Interdit" for his girlfriend, the iconic Audrey Hepburn. The 1960s witnessed a revolution when perfumer Edmond Roudnitska used a compound called "Hedione" for the first time in "Eau Savage," sparking a revolution in the fragrance industry. During this period, men's perfumes also became popular, as foreign perfumes entered the market, intensifying the competition in France's fragrance industry.

 

Yves Saint Laurent's "Opium" was born during his travel to China, inspired by the oriental charm. It was a perfume that embodied the mysterious, magnificent, alluring, and captivating oriental spicy aroma, with the opium poppy motif carved on the bottle. Although Opium received controversies, it didn't matter to Yves Saint Laurent because he believed that women using Opium conveyed a bewitching aura, akin to the effects of opium.

 

The Age of Luxury and Diversity:

 

In the 1980s, Estée Lauder's "Beautiful" epitomized the most moving wedding vows. Every bride is the shining queen on her wedding day, full of anticipation and ready to embark on a future with her loved one. Each woman is stunningly beautiful, making the "Beautiful" perfume the ideal representation of life's most beautiful fragrance, as per Estée Lauder's inspiration from the most precious and touching memories of life.

 

The 1990s witnessed the rise of "Tresor" by Lancôme, a brand that has always associated its history with the rose emblem. Before "Tresor," Lancôme's perfumes, such as "O de Lancome" and "Magie Noire," didn't directly connect with roses, which was somewhat regrettable. In 1990, Lancôme decided to launch a perfume that fully embodied its brand image, and of course, the rose was an essential ingredient. The sweet fragrance of "Tresor" symbolizes the scents of love and happiness. Additionally, "L'eau d'Issey," created by the renowned designer Issey Miyake, was a trendsetting perfume in the '90s. Its minimalistic bottle design, with simple lines and a transparent body, captured the fashion world's approval. The perfume, inspired by water, is both simple and full of imaginative possibilities, matching Issey Miyake's vision of presenting beauty in the simplest and purest form, yet unrelated to abstract art.

 

In the 1990s, unisex perfumes emerged, with CK One (1994) being the epitome of this trend. Gender was no longer an absolute binary. Men and women alike wanted to be true to themselves. Unisex perfumes flourished under this backdrop, and CK One became a sought-after fragrance, challenging market conventions with its open and inclusive approach. The simple frosted glass bottle and aluminum can packaging, using recyclable materials, boldly defied traditional perfume market norms. The CK One's advertisement featured seemingly indifferent, carefree youths, capturing the ever-changing world and consumer preferences. CK One was a simple product, catering to everyone's needs and readily accessible.

 

Today, the perfume industry has evolved into a part of the luxury goods industry, facing challenges and opportunities akin to many other economic sectors affected by financial crises. Without relying on marketing strategies, the perfume industry would find it difficult to survive. In the 21st century, there is an abundance of perfume choices, and consumers have become more discerning. With advancements in chemical processes, the perfume industry must embrace high-tech to improve production techniques, like leveraging plant genetics to enhance fragrances – a blend of science and artistry.